Changes in mitochondrial homeostasis and redox status in astronauts following long stays in space

ABSTRACT The effects of long-term exposure to extreme space conditions on astronauts were investigated by analyzing hair samples from ten astronauts who had spent six months on the

International Space Station (ISS). Two samples were collected before, during and after their stays in the ISS; hereafter, referred to as Preflight, Inflight and Postflight, respectively. The

ratios of mitochondrial (mt) to nuclear (n) DNA and mtRNA to nRNA were analyzed via quantitative PCR. The combined data of Preflight, Inflight and Postflight show a significant reduction in

the mtDNA/nDNA in Inflight, and significant reductions in the mtRNA/nRNA ratios in both the Inflight and Postflight samples. The mtRNA/mtDNA ratios were relatively constant, except in the

Postflight samples. Using the same samples, the expression of redox and signal transduction related genes, _MnSOD, CuZnSOD, Nrf2, Keap1, GPx4_ and _Catalase_ was also examined. The results

of the combined data from Preflight, Inflight and Postflight show a significant decrease in the expression of all of the redox-related genes in the samples collected Postflight, with the

exception of _Catalase_, which show no change. This decreased expression may contribute to increased oxidative stress Inflight resulting in the mitochondrial damage that is apparent

Postflight. SIMILAR CONTENT BEING VIEWED BY OTHERS SINGLE-CELL MULTI-OME AND IMMUNE PROFILES OF THE INSPIRATION4 CREW REVEAL CONSERVED, CELL-TYPE, AND SEX-SPECIFIC RESPONSES TO SPACEFLIGHT

Article Open access 11 June 2024 NRF2 CONTRIBUTES TO THE WEIGHT GAIN OF MICE DURING SPACE TRAVEL Article Open access 08 September 2020 NRF2 PLAYS A CRITICAL ROLE IN THE METABOLIC RESPONSE

DURING AND AFTER SPACEFLIGHT Article Open access 09 December 2021 INTRODUCTION Cosmic rays were first confirmed by Hess while performing balloon experiments to measure ionizing radiation in

the atmosphere1. The characteristics of the radiation field in low Earth orbit and in deep space have been previously described2,3. The details of the particle compositions and energy of

these cosmic rays were reported by Simpson in 19834. The dose rate of space radiation has been estimated to be 0.1–1.0 mGy/day, over one hundred times more than that experienced on Earth5.

Therefore, the risks posed by space radiation exposure to astronaut health should be of concern6,7,8,9. In addition to space radiation, microgravity is also expected to affect health and

normal cellular homeostasis. Many lines of evidence suggest that conditions experienced during microgravity result in increased oxidative stress10,11. Indo _et al_. examined changes in 15

apoptosis-related genes, 1 autophagy-related gene and 1 necrosis-related gene using quantitative real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) analyses following 24 

hours of simulated microgravity in a human neuroblastoma cell line, NB-1, which expresses the wild-type _p53_12. The study demonstrated changes in 3 genes: an upregulation of the

proapoptotic voltage-dependent anion channel 2 (_VDAC2_) gene and the downregulation of the proapoptotic caspase-9 (_CASP9_) and antiapoptotic manganese superoxide dismutase (_MnSOD_) genes.

These results suggest that microgravity may decrease apoptosis but may potentially increase oxidative stress. Wang indicated that simulated microgravity promotes PC12 cell senescence as a

result of increases in oxidant stress13. Mitochondria are the largest source of energy production in the cell, which occurs through oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS), and many findings

suggest that mitochondria also play an important role in apoptosis; this is known as mitochondria-mediated cell death14,15,16,17,18. Mitochondria control not only apoptosis but also necrosis

and autophagy19. It has been reported that electron leakage (2–3%) from the mitochondrial electron transport chain and the reaction of these electrons with oxygen results in the generation

of superoxides, which initiate oxidative stress20,21. In addition, the mitochondrial generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) relates to the aging process22. Thus, exposure to space

environments, which are characterized by space radiation and microgravity, may increase mitochondria-related oxidative stress and subsequent cell death19. Barrientos _et al_. demonstrated

that the amount of mitochondrial RNA (mtRNA) remains relatively constant and is not dependent on age, which is due to age-dependent increases in the levels of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and

age-dependent decreases in mitochondrial DNA transcription rates22. Therefore, biogenesis and the maintenance of mitochondrial DNA and RNA are likely important in controlling homeostasis.

Many factors influence cellular homeostasis and health under different conditions, especially during exposure to different stresses, such as those encountered in space. Reduction–oxidation

reaction (Redox) status should be also considered. In 2009, the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) initiated a clinical investigation to study the effects of long-term spaceflight on

gene expression and mineral metabolism by analyzing hair samples from International Space station (ISS) crew members that have been in space (experiment nicknamed “HAIR”). Ten astronauts

from the ISS crew participated in the HAIR experiment. This study was initiated according to a treaty between JAXA and Kagoshima University. This study complies with the terms of the treaty

and was performed using methods that were carried out in accordance with the approved guidelines. RESULTS A scheme detailing hair sample preparation is listed in Fig. 1. As described

earlier, mtDNA encodes 13 genes, of which the resulting proteins are a part of the ETC that produces ATP via OXPHOS. Therefore, information relating to mtDNA and mtRNA production is

important to evaluate cellular homeostasis. In this study, DNA and RNA were extracted from cells in hair bulbs, which were taken from ten astronauts as described earlier. To obtain adequate

amounts of mtDNA and mtRNA, we adjusted the amounts based on nDNA and nRNA. We determined Preflight, Inflight and Postflight mtDNA/nDNA, mtRNA/nRNA and mtRNA/mtDNA ratios as shown in the

Materials and Methods section of the Supplementary Information. The mtDNA/nDNA, mtRNA/nRNA and mtRNA/mtDNA ratios from samples taken Preflight #1, #2, Inflight #1, #2 and Postflight #1, #2

for each astronaut are shown in Supplementary Fig. S1a–c. The data from each astronaut show relatively different patterns. Increased or decreased mtDNA/nDNA, mtRNA/nRNA, and mtRNA/mtDNA

ratios for ten astronauts obtained from data in Supplementary Fig. S1 are summarized in Supplementary Fig. S2. As shown in Supplementary Fig. S2, there are some clear trends in the changes

to the mtDNA/nDNA and mtRNA/nRNA ratios, while there is a less clear trend for the mtRNA/mtDNA ratio, except in the comparison of Inflight vs Postflight results. The combined data of

mtDNA/nDNA, mtRNA/nRNA, and mtRNA/mtDNA ratios for Preflight #1, #2, Inflight #1, #2 and Postflight #1, #2 for all ten astronauts are shown in Supplementary Fig. S9a–c. Comparisons of the

mtDNA/nDNA, mtRNA/nRNA, and mtRNA/mtDNA ratios in Preflight, Inflight and Postflight are shown in Fig. 2. A significant reduction of mtDNA/nDNA ratio is observed on comparing the samples

taken Preflight with those taken Inflight (Fig. 2a). Similarly, a significant reduction of mtRNA/nRNA in Inflight and Postflight samples is seen compared to the levels in samples taken

Preflight (Fig. 2b). There is no significant change in the mtRNA/mtDNA ratio between Preflight, Inflight and Postflight as shown in Fig. 2c. Next, using the same samples, the gene expression

of the redox-sensitive enzymes mitochondrial manganese superoxide dismutase (_MnSOD_), and the cytosol enzymes, copper zinc superoxide dismutase (_CuZnSOD_), Nuclear factor

(erythroid-derived 2)-like 2 (_Nrf2_), Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1 (_Keap1_), Glutathione peroxidase 4 (_GPx4_) and Catalase was examined. The expression of _MnSOD, CuZnSOD, Nrf2,

Keap1, GPx4_ and Catalase in Preflight #1, #2, Inflight #1, #2 and Postflight #1, #2 for each astronaut are shown in Supplementary Figs S3–S8. The combined data of MnSOD, CuZnSOD, Nrf2,

Keap1, GPx4 and Catalase expressions from all ten astronauts in Preflight #1, #2, Inflight #1, #2 and Postflight #1, #2 data are shown in Supplementary Figs S10–S15. Comparisons of _MnSOD,

CuZnSOD, Nrf2, Keap1, GPx4_ and _Catalase_ expression in Preflight, Inflight and Postflight samples from the combined data of ten astronauts are shown in Figs 3 –8. The results show that the

expression of the redox-related genes are significantly reduced in Postflight samples compared to samples collected Preflight and Inflight, with the exception of _Catalase_, which was

unchanged across each condition. DISCUSSION HAIR FOLLICLE AS A USEFUL TOOL IN ANALYZING BIOGENESIS We previously discussed the usefulness of hair follicles in the study of biogenesis23. Our

group reported that in some astronauts from the same group examined in this study, genes related to hair growth, such as the fibroblast growth factor (FGF) 18, angiopoietin-like 7 (ANGPTL7)

and cartilage oligomeric matrix protein (COMP), were upregulated Inflight. We suggested that spaceflight inhibits cell proliferation in hair follicles24. Hair follicles reconstitute

themselves during the hair growth cycle, suggesting the presence of intrinsic stem cells25. Hair samples can be easily taken and be used as a tool for monitoring health26. It has been

previously shown that cells in the hair follicle are much more sensitive to radiation compared with epidermal cells, and that this sensitivity is p53 dependent27. After receiving 6 Gy of

X-ray irradiation, the normal structure of the hair bulb is totally abrogated, although the epithelial tissues associated with papillary cells remain, suggesting that cells of the hair bulb

are radiation sensitive28. Therefore, the hair bulb is an appropriate tool for studying the effects of space radiation, which may influence health. OBSERVATIONS OF THE MITOCHONDRIAL RNA AND

DNA RATIOS PROVIDE INDICATORS OF HOMEOSTATIC CHANGES IN AN INDIVIDUAL Many lines of study have used the housekeeping gene, nuclear coded glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (_GAPDH_),

as a nuclear control gene in microgravity experiments29,30, and _GAPDH_ expression does not show differences between ground control and microgravity treatments31,32. To improve the precision

of the data, we normalized our data to the levels of nDNA and nRNA to determine changes in mtDNA and mtRNA content in the Preflight, Inflight and Postflight samples (Fig. 2). The importance

of mitochondrial biogenesis in maintaining health, the development of diseases and aging has been described33,34,35. The initiation of transcription in mammalian mitochondria depends on

three proteins: mitochondrial RNA polymerase (_POLRMT_), mitochondrial transcription factor A (_TFAM_) and mitochondrial transcription factor B2 (_TFB2 M_), which are nuclear encoded

genes36. Therefore, cellular metabolism influences mitochondrial transcription. Mitochondrial DNA is known to encode seven subunits of complex I (NADH dehydrogenase), one unit of coenzyme

Q-cytochrome _c_ reductase/cytochrome _b_ (complex III), three subunits of cytochrome _c_ oxidase (complex IV), and two subunits of ATP synthase37. The transcription and translation of these

genes proceeds in the mitochondrial matrix independently of the processes of nuclear DNA37,38. Even if the temperature of the environment is changed, the production of mtDNA and mtRNA is

not changed39. It is known that increases in mtDNA production compensate for the reduced production of mtRNA that occurs with aging40. We used the NADH-ubiquinone oxidoreductase chain 1

(_ND1_) gene for analyzing mtDNA and mtRNA, which was performed via qRT-PCR. The ND1 protein is part of a large enzyme complex known as complex I. Complex I is one of several enzyme

complexes necessary for OXPHOS. Exercise results in damage in mitochondria41. It is known that mitochondrial DNA and RNA production differs between developing and adult rats42 and aging

causes malfunctions in mitochondria20. Previously, we have published that mitochondria in cells with impaired electron transport chain and mitochondrial DNA damage cause increase of

mitochondrial ROS generation21. Change of levels of mtDNA production may increase the generation of mitochondrial ROS. Corticotropin, which induces the secretion of other hormones, including

corticosterone, and vitamin 12 are involved in regulating mtDNA and mtRNA expression43,44. Gadaleta _et al_. reported that treatment with triiodothyronine, a thyroid hormone, resulted in

increases in mtDNA transcription45. Thus, changes to health status likely change the mtDNA and mtRNA content. MITOCHONDRIAL DNA AND RNA HOMEOSTASIS CHANGE IN SPACE In space, living

conditions are different than on Earth. Alterations in gravity can influence homeostasis and health status, and space radiation is also a major factor and potential inducer of stress during

long stays in space. In this study, hair bulb samples were examined to determine nuclear and mitochondrial DNA and RNA ratios because mitochondrial DNA and RNA contribute to cellular energy

production, homeostasis and may also reflect the induction of oxidative stress. We have demonstrated previously that ROS generation from mitochondria controls lipid peroxidation and

apoptosis, which can be detrimental to cellular function and act as a potential contributor to disease20. Doses of radiation in space are over one hundred times greater than the doses

received on the surface of the Earth. In addition to the effects of space radiation, the effects of isolation and microgravity can also affect the activity and emotions of astronauts.

Working and living in specific locations, especially under the different conditions experienced in space, can cause stress in humans, although astronauts have been highly selected from the

general population. This study examines results from ten astronauts, who stayed in the ISS for a long period. Understanding the biological situations involved with prolonged stays in space

will provide valuable information for dealing with the differences between lives on Earth and in space. The observation of this study shows no change in the mtRNA.mtDNA ratio (Fig. 2c).

However, mtDNA/nDNA ratio was decreased on comparing Preflight and Inflight samples as shown in Fig. 2a. Similarly, mtRNA.nRNA ratio decreased in Inflight and Postflight compared to

Preflight. This may imply that the cells in the hair follicle received damage due to space radiation, with a reduced number of cells recovered in Postflight, but the damage, in terms of

mtDNA transcription, remained comparable to Postflight as shown in Fig. 2b. EFFECTS OF THE SPACE ENVIRONMENT ON HEALTH STATUS Several studies suggest that microgravity affects cellular

functions such as proliferation46, signal transduction47 and gene expression48. Stein _et al_. examined energy intake and protein synthesis in two astronauts (American) and four cosmonauts

(Russian) during long-duration (over 3 month) flights on the Russian space station MIR49. They observed that energy intake and protein synthesis decreased in a correlated manner. After the

flight, energy intake and protein synthesis levels returned to the preflight levels. Stein and Leskiw further examined oxidative damage and urinary excretion of F2 isoprostane and

8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) during and after spaceflight for the same two astronauts and four cosmonauts50. Samples were obtained from MIR participants inflight between 88 and 186 days

in orbit. F2 isoprostane, 8-iso-Prostaglandin F2α (8-iso-PGF2α) and 8-OHdG were used as markers for oxidative damage to membrane lipids and DNA, respectively. The results show that on the

shuttle, 8-OHdG excretion was unchanged inflight and postflight, although 8-iso-PGF2α excretion was decreased inflight (p ≤ 0.05). The changes in 8-iso-PGF2α production were attributed to

decreases in the production of oxygen radicals from the electron transport chain due to the reduced energy intake inflight. They suggested that postflight increases in the excretion of the

products of oxidative damage were attributed to a combination of an increase in metabolic activity and the loss of some host antioxidant defenses inflight. They concluded that oxidative

damage was decreased inflight and increased postflight50. Increases in oxidative stress associated with spaceflight may persist after a return to normal gravity, and this effect may be more

pronounced after an extended period of time spent in space10. Hollander _et al_. examined liver antioxidant enzyme activities, mRNA abundance, and glutathione (GSH) status in male

Sprague–Dawley rats placed in an enclosed module aboard the Space Shuttle STS-63 for 8 days (F, n = 6)51. Spaceflight significantly reduced the total GSH content and the activities of copper

zinc SOD (CuZnSOD), catalase, GSH reductase, and GSH sulfur-transferase in the liver. These results indicate that spaceflight can induce a downregulation of the antioxidant defense system,

which is also observed in the current study, where a significant decrease in the expression of various redox-related enzymes was seen Inflight and Postflight. In the former case, this

downregulation promoted oxidative stress in the liver51. Degan _et al_. reported that exposure to simulated microgravity reduces intracellular ATP concentrations in freshly drawn lymphocytes

and lymphoblastoid cells by approximately 40−50% of normal levels52. They also found that poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) activity increases, indicating that cells exposed to reduced

gravity are stressed. Maillet _et al_. reviewed the effects of microgravity in terms of an accelerated model of nutritional disturbances, and concluded that adopting an integrated approach

will be essential for optimizing the health of astronauts53. In the Space Shuttle STS-76 experiment, Schatten _et al_. found apoptosis and mitochondrial morphological changes in response to

space exposure for 4 and 48 hours using acute T-cell leukemia Jurkat cells54,55. It has been noted that because experiments conducted in space are performed under conditions involving

microgravity and space radiation, these findings might be caused by both factors. EFFECTS OF OTHER FACTORS ON MTDNA AND MTRNA PRODUCTION The conditions experienced and the hardware required

to live in space will be of great concern for future space travel. Temperature, carbon dioxide levels and humidity are well controlled in space shuttles56,57. A project examining immune

parameters, i.e., peripheral leukocyte distribution, T-cell function, virus-specific immunity, and mitogen-stimulated cytokine production profiles, in twenty-three astronauts revealed that

the immune alterations persist during long-duration (6 month) spaceflights58. Immune alterations are likely to be critical factors in the changes in homeostasis occurring in astronauts. In

addition, several other factors are likely to influence astronauts, including mental or psychological, philosophical, and physical factors during the preflight, inflight and postflight

periods. Emotions involved in the first trip to space, changes in sleeping time and fatigue can influence the health of astronauts in the preflight period. The completely different

conditions of microgravity, altered diets, different circadian rhythms and stress management might also influence astronaut health during spaceflight. In addition, space radiation could

influence astronaut health. After the flight, emotional, psychological and physical effects, as well as changes to eating and circadian cycles and gravity could again influence an

astronaut’s health. Factors that influence astronauts and the possible aging effects of space travel have been described by the former astronauts Vernicos and Schneider59. Nutelings _et al_.

suggested that three months of exposure to space conditions induced skin atrophy and deregulated hair growth in mice that were maintained in the Mice Drawer System (MDS)60 for 91 days

aboard the ISS61. Another recent study conducted in space during the STS-135 mission, where female C57BL/6 mice survived for 13 days, resulted in increased oxidative stress in the skin,

which was assessed by examining 4-hydroxynonenal (4-HNE)62. CHANGES OF OXIDATIVE STRESS RELATED GENE EXPRESSIONS IN PREFLIGHT, INFLIGHT AND POSTFLIGHT The expression of six genes, _MnSOD,

CuZnSOD, Nrf2, Keap1, GPx4_ and _Catalase_ were examined in Preflight, Inflight and Postflight samples in this study. MnSOD is an enzyme that catalyses the dismutation of superoxide, which

is formed by oxygen and electrons that are released from electron transport systems (ETC), to hydrogen peroxide. Mitochondria are a major source of reactive oxygen species (ROS),

particularly superoxide, which can be transformed to other reactive species that promote oxidative stress and related diseases20. CuZnSOD is localized in cytosol, and is also responsible for

the dismutation of superoxide63. Alterations in the level of ROS within cells causes the perturbation of signaling processes, with the Nrf2 – Keap1 system recognized as a major signaling

pathway to protect cells from oxidative stress64. Human Keap1 has 27 cysteines, with oxidation of cysteine resulting in a conformational change that causes the release of Keap1 from bound

Nrf2, enabling nuclear translocation and activation of Nrf2. Nrf2 plays an important transductive signaling role that causes upregulation of the cellular antioxidant defenses64. GPx4 is a

phospholipid hydroperoxide that protects cells against membrane lipid peroxidation, and their isoforms are produced by alternative splicing and transcription initiation. There is evidence to

support the localization of GPx4 to the mitochondria65. Catalase is a cytosolic enzyme responsible for the removal of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). Thus, together, these proteins play a key

role in maintaining the cellular redox balance. Our results show that _CuZnSOD_ and _Keap1_ genes, together with the mtDNA/nDNA and mtRNA/nRNA are downregulated in Inflight, supporting the

suggestion that cells in the hair follicle are damaged by exposure to space radiation in Inflight. The mtRNA/nRNA ratio was also decreased Postflight, as was the expression of _CuZnSOD_ and

_Keap1_. Interestingly, the gene expression of _MnSOD, Nrf2_ and _GPx4_ was further downregulated Postflight compared with Inflight, suggesting sustained damage to the cells of hair

follicle, which is again supported by the reduced mtRNA/nRNA ratios from Postflight compared to Preflight samples. The conclusions from this study are that a prolonged exposure to space

conditions may induce reduced mtDNA and mtRNA production and that this phenomenon continues even after spaceflight, based on an examination of samples from ten astronauts who stayed in the

ISS for a period of six months. Our previous study24 conducted using DNA array and qRT-PCR analyses using the same samples of astronauts concluded that cell proliferation in cell follicles

was inhibited Inflight. The results presented in this study showing reduced mtDNA and mtRNA expression is supported by data showing decreased expression of several key redox-regulated

enzymes. These results may be due to the high radiation sensitivity of hair follicle cells. The effects of longer stays in space stay, such as those involved in going to Mars, are therefore

of great concern. These types of trips may have a more significant influence on cells of important organs, such as neurons. METHODS ETHICS STATEMENT This study was carried out in accordance

with the guidelines approved by the Committee on Human Care and Use by the NASA and JAXA Ethical Review Board and the Human Research Multilateral Review Board (HRMRB). All participants

provided written informed consent. HAIR SAMPLE PREPARATION Ten astronauts at the International Space Station (ISS) participated in the study. They were at the ISS on a 6-month-long mission.

During each mission, five strands of hair were sampled six times from each astronaut. The 6 different sampling times were as follows (Fig. 1): first Preflight (Launch (L)-180~90 days: 6~3

months before launch), second Preflight (L-60~14: from 2 months to 2 weeks before launch), first Inflight (L + 20~37: from 20 to 37 days after launch), second Inflight (Return (R)-20~7: from

20 117 to 7 days before return), first Postflight (R + 2~7: from 2 to 7 days after return), and second Postflight (R + 30~90: from 1 to 3 months after return). The sampling days differed

for each astronaut because of differing schedules. In each mission, two astronauts were paired, and individual hair samples were collected. For each individual sample, five strands of hair

were grasped as close as possible to the scalp and pulled out using tweezers in the direction of hair growth without damaging the hair roots. The Preflight and Postflight samples were stored

at −80 °C until analysis. The Inflight samples were stored in the Minus Eighty Degree Laboratory Freezer on the ISS (MELFI) as soon as possible after collection until being returned for

analysis. RNA EXTRACTION Hair roots (approximately 2–3 mm) were used as the source for extracted mRNA. The roots were cut into approximately 15 fragments (0.1–0.2 mm each) by using a

microsurgical knife under a stereoscopic microscope. The collected fragments were immersed in 800 μl of ISOGEN reagent (Nippon Gene; Toyama, Japan) in tubes and stirred (15 sec × 2 times)

using a Bioruptor UCD-250 sonication device (Cosmo Bio; Tokyo, Japan). Next, the RNA was purified from hair lysates using an ISOGEN kit according to the manufacturer’s instructions. Briefly,

the tubes were maintained at room temperature for 5 min, followed by the addition of 200 μl of chloroform. The subsequent process of RNA purification was performed according to the

manufacturer’s instructions. After isolation, RNA pellets were washed with 70% ethanol, air dried, and resuspended in 10 μl of RNA-free water (Gibco-BRL; Gaithersburg, MD). Total RNA was

quantified at 260 nm using a NanoDrop ND-1000 spectrophotometer (NanoDrop Technologies Inc.; Wilmington, DE). RNA quality was determined using an Agilent Bioanalyzer 2100 (Agilent

Technologies; Palo Alto, CA). The 28S:18S rRNA ratio and the RNA integrity number (RIN) were calculated using the 2100 Expert and RIN Beta Version software (Agilent Technologies),

respectively. RNA AMPLIFICATION As the RNA sample extracted from the hair samples was small, a double RNA amplification step was incorporated prior to microarray hybridization. Total RNA was

amplified using an Ambion MessageAmp aRNA Kit (Thermo Fisher Scientific; Waltham MA, USA). Briefly, first- and second-strand cDNA were synthesized. Unlabeled aRNA was generated by _in

vitro_ transcription with non-biotinylated NTPs. For probe preparation, RNA was reverse-transcribed with second-round primers. The second-strand cDNA was synthesized with T7 oligo(dT)

primers and purified. Biotin-labeled cRNA was generated via _in vitro_ transcription and purified using an RNeasy Kit (Qiagen; Venlo, Netherlands). DNA EXTRACTION FROM HAIR RNA SAMPLES DNA

samples from the astronauts’ hair roots were extracted using ISOGEN (Nippon Gene; Toyama, Japan) from the rest of the extracted RNA samples according to the manufacturer’s instructions.

Briefly, 0.3 ml of 100% ethanol were added to each sample, followed by a 3-minute incubation at room temperature. Following centrifugation using a refrigerated microcentrifuge (Kubota model

3500; KUBOTA Tokyo, Japan) at 2000 _g_ and 4 °C for 5 minutes, the precipitate in the tubes was washed with 1 ml of 0.1 M sodium citrate in 10% ethanol for 30 minutes. After further

centrifugation at 2000 _g_ and 4 °C for 5 minutes, precipitates were washed again with 1 ml of 0.1 M sodium citrate in 10% ethanol for another 30 minutes. The isolated DNA pellets were

washed with 1 ml of ethanol and then centrifuged at 2000 _g_ and 4 °C for 5 minutes. The rinsed DNA samples were air dried and re-suspended in 50 μl of Tris-ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid

(EDTA) buffer solution (TE solution). To quantify the amount of DNA, the absorbance rates at 260 nm were measured using a U-1900 spectrophotometer (Hitachi High-Tech Science; Tokyo, Japan).

The 260 nm/280 nm absorbance ratio of the DNA samples was also measured to determine DNA quality. MEASUREMENT OF MTDNA/NDNA, MTRNA/NRNA AND MTRNA/MTDNA RATIOS The ratio of mitochondrial (mt)

and nuclear (n) DNA and the ratio of mtRNA and nRNA from the astronauts’ hair roots were analyzed via SYBR Green-based quantitative PCR (qPCR). The DNA and RNA samples described above were

used for qPCR. Ten nanograms of DNA were used to detect mt or nDNA, and 2 ng of RNA was used to detect mt or nRNA. The qPCR reactions were performed with the ABI Prism 7000 sequence

detection system (Applied Biosystems; Foster City, CA, USA) using a QuantiTect SYBR Green PCR Kit (QIAGEN; Valencia, CA, USA) as recommended by the manufacturer, except for the following

modifications. For _ND1_ and _GAPDH_ amplification, the denature temperature was 95 °C, the denature time was 15 seconds, the annealing temperature was 55 °C, the annealing time was 30 

seconds, the elongation temperature was 72 °C and the elongation time was 40 seconds. NADH dehydrogenase subunit 1 (_ND1_) primers were used to detect mtDNA or mtRNA, and

glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (_GAPDH_) primers were used to detect nDNA or nRNA. These primer sequences are as follows. _ND1_ F: 5′-ACCCCCGATTCCGCTACGACCAAC-3′, _ND1_ R:

5′-GGTTTGAGGGGGAATGCTGGAGAT-3′, _GAPDH_ F: 5′-GGGCAAGGTCATCCCTGAGCTGAA-3′, _GAPDH_ R: 5′-TCTAGACGGCAGGTCAGGTCCACC-3′. CALCULATION OF THE MTDNA/NDNA, MTRNA/NRNA, AND MTRNA/MTDNA RATIOS The

mtDNA/nDNA, mtRNA/nRNA, and mtRNA/mtDNA ratios were calculated using the equations below. The threshold cycle (Ct) is defined as “the fractional cycle number at which the fluorescence

generated by SYBR Green passes above a fixed threshold.” Ratio of mtDNA/nDNA and ratio of mtRNA/nRNA = 2^(GAPDH Ct- ND1 Ct). Ratio of mtRNA/mtDNA = (mtRNA/nRNA)/(mtDNA/nDNA). MEASUREMENTS OF

MNSOD, CUZNSOD, NRF2, KEAP1, GPX4 AND CATALASE GENE EXPRESSIONS The qPCR reactions were performed with the ABI Prism 7000 sequence detection system (Applied Biosystems; Foster City, CA,

USA) using a QuantiTect SYBR Green PCR Kit (QIAGEN; Valencia, CA, USA). _GAPDH_ was used for the control. PCR conditions were as follows: For _MnSOD, Nrf2, Keap1, GPx4_ amplification, the

denature temperature was 95 °C, the denature time was 15 seconds, the annealing and elongation temperature was 60 °C, the annealing and elongation time was 1 minute. For _CuZnSDO_

amplification, the denature temperature was 95 °C, the denature time was 30 seconds, the annealing temperature was 55 °C, the annealing time was 30 seconds, the elongation temperature was 72

 °C and the elongation time was 30 seconds. For _Catalase_ amplification, the denature temperature was 95 °C, the denature time was 10 seconds, the annealing temperature was 55 °C, the

annealing time was 30 seconds, the elongation temperature was 72 °C and the elongation time was 40 seconds. GAPDH was used as control amplification. These primer sequences are as follows.

_MnSOD_ F: 5′-TTCTGGACAAACCTCAGCCCTAACGGT-3′ _MnSOD_ R: 5′-AACAGATGCAGCCGTCAGCTTCTCCTTAAA-3′ _CuZnSOD_ F: 5′-CATTGCATCATTGGCCGCACACTG-3′ _CuZnSOD_ R: 5′-ACCACAAGCCAAACGACTTCCAGC-3′ _Nrf2_ F:

5′-GTGGCTGCTCAGAATTGCAGAAAAAGAAAA-3′ _Nrf2_ R: 5′-TGTTTTTTCAGTAGGTGAAGGCTTTTGTCA-3′ _Keap1_ F: 5′-CCATGAAGCACCGGCGAAGTGCC-3′ _Keap1_ R: 5′-GTCTGTATCTGGGTCGTAACACTCCAC-3′ _GPx4_F:

5′-GAGCCAGGGAGTAACGAAGAGATCAAA-3′ _GPx4_R: 5′-TCACGCAGATCTTGCTGAACATATCGAATT-3′ _Catalase_ F: 5′-TGACTACGGGAGCCACATCCAGGC-3′ _Catalase_ R: 5′-TCACAGATTTGCCTTCTCCCTTGC-3′ _GAPDH_ F:

5′-GGGCAAGGTCATCCCTGAGCTGAA-3′, _GAPDH_ R: 5′-TCTAGACGGCAGGTCAGGTCCACC-3′. STATISTICAL ANALYSIS Statistical analyses were performed using Scheffe’s F test. All _p_ values less than 0.05 were

considered to be statistically significant. ADDITIONAL INFORMATION HOW TO CITE THIS ARTICLE: Indo, H. P. _et al_. Changes in mitochondrial homeostasis and redox status in astronauts

following long stays in space. _Sci. Rep._ 6, 39015; doi: 10.1038/srep39015 (2016). PUBLISHER'S NOTE: Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published

maps and institutional affiliations. CHANGE HISTORY * _ 20 APRIL 2020 An amendment to this paper has been published and can be accessed via a link at the top of the paper. _ REFERENCES *

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preventing oxidative injury to cells. J. Biol. Chem. 274, 4924–4933 (1999). Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar  Download references ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This study was supported in part by the

JAXA-ISS Space Medicine Program Grant from the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency. The authors gratefully thank the astronaut who took part in this study, especially Dr. Satoshi Furukawa of

JAXA who provided encouragement to complete this study, and Professor John Tremarco of Kagoshima University for his help and guidance during the preparation of this manuscript. AUTHOR

INFORMATION AUTHORS AND AFFILIATIONS * Department of Oncology and Space Environmental Medicine, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima City,

890-8544, Kagoshima, Japan Hiroko P. Indo, Hideyuki J. Majima, Shigeaki Suenaga, Kazuo Tomita, Akira Higashibata & Noriaki Ishioka * Divison of Aerospace Medicine, The Jikei University

School of Medicine, Minato-ku, 105-8461, Tokyo, Japan Masahiro Terada * Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency, Tsukuba City, 305-8505, Ibaraki, Japan Masahiro Terada, Shin Yamada, Akira

Higashibata, Noriaki Ishioka & Chiaki Mukai * Space Biosciences Division, NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, California, 94035, USA Masahiro Terada * Institute of Space and

Astronautical Science, Sagamihara, 252-5210, Kanagawa, Japan Noriaki Ishioka * Department of Space and Astronautical Science, School of Physical Sciences, SOKENDAI (The Graduate University

for Advanced Studies), Sagamihara, 252-5210, Kanagawa, Japan Noriaki Ishioka * Department of Dermatology, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima

City, 890-8544, Kagoshima, Japan Takuro Kanekura * National Center Hospital for Mental Nervous and Muscular Disorders, Kodaira, 187-8551, Tokyo, Japan Ikuya Nonaka * The Heart Research

Institute, 7 Eliza Street, Newtown, Sydney, 7 Eliza Street, Newtown, Australia Clare L. Hawkins * Sydney Medical School, University of Sydney, Sydney, 2006, NSW, Australia Clare L. Hawkins *

Department of Biomedical Sciences, Panum Institute, University of Copenhagen, Blegdamsvej 3, Copenhagen, 2200, Denmark Michael J. Davies * Department of Toxicology and Cancer Biology,

University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, 40536, Kentucky, USA Daret K. St Clair * Tokyo University of Science, Shinjuku, 162-0825, Tokyo, Japan Chiaki Mukai Authors * Hiroko P.

Indo View author publications You can also search for this author inPubMed Google Scholar * Hideyuki J. Majima View author publications You can also search for this author inPubMed Google

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can also search for this author inPubMed Google Scholar * Takuro Kanekura View author publications You can also search for this author inPubMed Google Scholar * Ikuya Nonaka View author

publications You can also search for this author inPubMed Google Scholar * Clare L. Hawkins View author publications You can also search for this author inPubMed Google Scholar * Michael J.

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Scholar * Chiaki Mukai View author publications You can also search for this author inPubMed Google Scholar CONTRIBUTIONS H.P.I., S.S., K.T. and T.K. contributed to the whole analyses and

discussion of the results. M.T., S.Y., C.L.H., M.D., D.K.S. and H.J.M. contributed to the experimental planning and discussion of the results. A.H., N.I., I.N., C.M., contributed to all of

these aspects in this study, including drafting the manuscript and executing the final revisions. All authors approved the final manuscript prior to publication. ETHICS DECLARATIONS

COMPETING INTERESTS The authors declare no competing financial interests. ELECTRONIC SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL SUPPLEMENTARY FIGURES RIGHTS AND PERMISSIONS This work is licensed under a

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view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Reprints and permissions ABOUT THIS ARTICLE CITE THIS ARTICLE Indo, H., Majima, H., Terada, M. _et al._ Changes

in mitochondrial homeostasis and redox status in astronauts following long stays in space. _Sci Rep_ 6, 39015 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1038/srep39015 Download citation * Received: 17

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